the midland

Diplomatic term: midland

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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Of New England ancestry, his family returned there soon after his birth and later moved to Cleveland, Ohio. In 1884, Dow entered the Case School of Applied Science, graduating in science four years later. His thesis dealt partly with the brines of Ohio, and he was persuaded to present a paper on brine to the meeting of the American Association for he Advancement of Science being held in Cleveland the same year. That entailed visits to collect samples of brines from various localities, and led to the observation that their composition varied, one having a higher lithium content while another was richer in bromine. This study of brines proved to be the basis for his career in industrial chemistry. In 1888 Dow was appointed Professor of Chemistry at the Homeopathic Hospital College in Cleveland, but he continued to work on brine, obtaining a patent in the same year for extracting bromine by blowing air through slightly electrolysed brine. He set up a small company to exploit the process, but it failed; the process was taken up and successfully worked by the Midland Chemical Company in Midland, Michigan. The electrolysis required a direct-current generator which, when it was installed in 1892, was probably the first of its kind in America. Dow next set up a company to produce chlorine by the electrolysis of brine. It moved to Midland in 1896, and the Dow Central Company purchased the Midland Chemical Company in 1900. Its main concern was the manufacture of bleaching powder, but the company continued to grow, based on Dow's steady development of chemical compounds that could be derived from brines. His search for further applications of chlorine led to the making of insecticides and an interest in horticulture. Meanwhile, his experience at the Homeopathic Hospital doubtless fired an interest in pharmaceuticals. One of the substances found in brine was magnesium chloride, and by 1918 magnesium metal was being produced on a small scale by electrolysis. An intensive study of its alloys followed, leading to the large-scale production of these important light-metal alloys, under the name of Dowmetals. Two other "firsts" achieved by the company were the synthetic indigo process and the production of the element iodine in the USA. The Dow company became one of the leading chemical manufacturers in the USA, and at the same time Dow played an active part in public life, serving on many public and education boards.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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Pullman was initially a cabinet-maker in Albion, New York, and then became a road-works contractor in Chicago. Observing a need for improved sleeping accommodation on trains, he arranged in 1858 with the Chicago \& Alton Railroad to convert two of their coaches into sleeping cars by incorporating upper berths hinged to the sides of the car. These and a third car entered service in 1859 and were popular with passengers, but other railways were reluctant to adopt them.

Pullman moved to the Colorado mining area and kept a general store, but in 1863 he returned to Chicago. With Ben Field he spent a year building the car Pioneer, which not only incorporated the folding upper berths but also had seats arranged to convert into lower berths. When Pioneer entered service, the travelling public was enthusiastic: Pullman and Field built more cars, and an increasing number of railways arranged to operate them under contract. In 1867 Pullman and Field organized the Pullman Palace Car Company, which grew to have five car-building plants. Pullman introduced a combined sleeping/restaurant car in 1867 and the dining car in 1868.

In 1872 James Allport, General Manager of the Midland Railway in Britain, toured the USA and was impressed by Pullman cars. He arranged with Pullman for the American company to ship a series of Pullman cars to Britain in parts for Midland to assemble at its works at Derby. The first, a sleeping car, was completed early in 1874 and entered service on the Midland Railway. Several others followed the same year, including the first Pullman Parlor Car, a luxury coach for day rather than overnight use, to enter service in Europe. Pullman formed the Pullman Palace Car Company (Europe), and although the Midland Railway purchased the Pullman cars running on its system a few years later, Pullman cars were used on many other railways in Britain (notably the London Brighton \& South Coast Railway) and on the continent of Europe. In 1881 the Pullman Parlor Car Globe, running in Britain, became the first vehicle to be illuminated by electric light.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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Stanier's career started when he was Office Boy at the Great Western Railway's Swindon works. He was taken on as a pupil in 1892 and steady promotion elevated him to Works Manager in 1920, under Chief Mechanical Engineer George Churchward. In 1923 he became Principal Assistant to Churchward's successor, C.B.Collett. In 1932, at the age of 56 and after some forty years' service with the Great Western Railway (GWR), W.A.Stanier was appointed Chief Mechanical Engineer of the London Midland \& Scottish Railway (LMS). This, the largest British railway, had been formed by the amalgamation in 1923 of several long-established railways, including the London \& North Western and the Midland, that had strong and disparate traditions in locomotive design. A coherent and comprehensive policy had still to emerge; Stanier did, however, inherit a policy of reducing the number of types of locomotives, in the interest of economy, by the withdrawal and replacement of small classes, which had originated with constituent companies.

Initially as replacements, Stanier brought in to the LMS a series of highly successful standard locomotives; this practice may be considered a development of that of G.J.Churchward on the GWR. Notably, these new locomotives included: the class 5, mixed-traffic 4–6–0; the 8F heavy-freight 2–8–0; and the "Duchess" 4–6–2 for express passenger trains. Stanier also built, in 1935, a steam-turbine-driven 4–6–2, which became the only steam-turbine locomotive in Britain to have an extended career in regular service, although the economies it provided were insufficient for more of the type to be built. From 1932–3 onwards, and initially as part of a programme to economize on shunting costs by producing a single-manned locomotive, the LMS started to develop diesel shunting locomotives. Stanier delegated much of the responsibility for these to C.E.Fairburn. From 1939 diesel-electric shunting locomotives were being built in quantity for the LMS: this was the first instance of adoption of diesel power on a large scale by a British main-line railway. In a remarkably short time, Stanier transformed LMS locomotive stock, formerly the most backward of the principal British railways, to the point at which it was second to none. He was seconded to the Government as Scientific Advisor to the Ministry of Production in 1942, and retired two years later.

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m. middle region, middle space, the central orﾠ middle part of anything ṠrS. ;

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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After an apprenticeship with E.B.Wilson, Leeds, Johnson worked successively for the Great Northern, Manchester Sheffield \& Lincolnshire, Edinburgh \& Glasgow and Great Eastern Railways before being appointed Locomotive Superintendent of the Midland Railway in 1873. There he remained for the rest of his working life, becoming notable for well-designed, well-finished locomotives. Of these, the most famous were his 4–2–2 express locomotives, introduced in 1887. The use of a single pair of driving-wheels was made possible at this late date by application of steam sanding gear (invented in 1886 by F. Holt) to enable them to haul heavy trains without slipping. In 1901, almost at the end of his career, he produced the first Midland compound 4–4–0, with a single internal high-pressure cylinder and two external low-pressure ones. The system had been devised by W.M.Smith, working on the North Eastern Railway under Wilson Worsdell. These locomotives were successful enough to be developed and built in quantity by Johnson's successors and were adopted as a standard locomotive by the London Midland \& Scottish Railway after the grouping of 1923.

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m. midday, noon Mn. MBh. etc.;

1) General subject: midland (the midlands), midlands, the Shire, the midland, the shires

2) Obsolete: (the Shires) shire

3) Diplomatic term: (the Midlands) midland

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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Vignoles, who was of Huguenot descent, was orphaned in infancy and brought up in the family of his grandfather, Dr Charles Hutton FRS, Professor of Mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. After service in the Army he travelled to America, arriving in South Carolina in 1817. He was appointed Assistant to the state's Civil Engineer and surveyed much of South Carolina and subsequently Florida. After his return to England in 1823 he established himself as a civil engineer in London, and obtained work from the brothers George and John Rennie.

In 1825 the promoters of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) lost their application for an Act of Parliament, discharged their engineer George Stephenson and appointed the Rennie brothers in his place. They in turn employed Vignoles to resurvey the railway, taking a route that would minimize objections. With Vignoles's route, the company obtained its Act in 1826 and appointed Vignoles to supervise the start of construction. After Stephenson was reappointed Chief Engineer, however, he and Vignoles proved incompatible, with the result that Vignoles left the L \& MR early in 1827.

Nevertheless, Vignoles did not sever all connection with the L \& MR. He supported John Braithwaite and John Ericsson in the construction of the locomotive Novelty and was present when it competed in the Rainhill Trials in 1829. He attended the opening of the L \& MR in 1830 and was appointed Engineer to two railways which connected with it, the St Helens \& Runcorn Gap and the Wigan Branch (later extended to Preston as the North Union); he supervised the construction of these.

After the death of the Engineer to the Dublin \& Kingstown Railway, Vignoles supervised construction: the railway, the first in Ireland, was opened in 1834. He was subsequently employed in surveying and constructing many railways in the British Isles and on the European continent; these included the Eastern Counties, the Midland Counties, the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyme \& Manchester (which proved for him a financial disaster from which he took many years to recover), and the Waterford \& Limerick. He probably discussed rail of flat-bottom section with R.L. Stevens during the winter of 1830–1 and brought it into use in the UK for the first time in 1836 on the London \& Croydon Railway: subsequently rail of this section became known as "Vignoles rail". He considered that a broader gauge than 4 ft 8½ in. (1.44 m) was desirable for railways, although most of those he built were to this gauge so that they might connect with others. He supported the atmospheric system of propulsion during the 1840s and was instrumental in its early installation on the Dublin \& Kingstown Railway's Dalkey extension. Between 1847 and 1853 he designed and built the noted multi-span suspension bridge at Kiev, Russia, over the River Dnieper, which is more than half a mile (800 m) wide at that point.

Between 1857 and 1863 he surveyed and then supervised the construction of the 155- mile (250 km) Tudela \& Bilbao Railway, which crosses the Cantabrian Pyrenees at an altitude of 2,163 ft (659 m) above sea level. Vignoles outlived his most famous contemporaries to become the grand old man of his profession.

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See also: Samuda, Joseph d'Aguilar

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older umb, prep. with acc. and dat.

I. with acc.

1) around (slá hring um e-n);

2) about, all over (hárit féll um hana alla); um allar sveitir, all over the country; mikill um herðar, large about the shoulders, broad-shouldered; liggja um akkeri, to ride at anchor;

3) of proportion; margir voru um einn, many against one; um einn hest voru tveir menn, two men to each horse;

4) round, past, beyond, with verbs denoting motion (sigla vestr um Bretland); leggja um skut þessu skipi, to pass by this ship; ríða um tún, to pass by a place;

5) over, across, along (flytja e-n um haf); kominn um langan veg, come from a long way off; ganga um gólf, to cross the floor (but also to walk up and down the floor); slá, er lá um þvert skipit, a beam that lay athwart the ship; um kné sér, across the knee; e-t er hœgt um hönd, gives little trouble, is ready to hand;

6) of time, during, in the course of (um messuna, um þingit, um sumarit); þat var um nótt, by night; um nætr sem um daga, by night as well as day; lengra en fara megi um dag, in the course of one day;

7) at a point of time (hann kom at höllinni um drykkju); um þat, at that time, then; um þat er, when (um þat, er vér erum allir at velli lagðir);

8) of, about, in regard to a thing; bera um e-t, dœma um e-t, to bear witness, judge about; tala um e-t, to speak of; annast um e-t, to attend to; sviðr um sik, wise of oneself; hvárr um sik, each for himself; var mart vel um hann, he had many good qualities;

9) e-m er ekki um e-t, one does not like (var honum ekki um Norðmenn); with infin., honum er ekki um at berjast í dag, he has no liking to fight to-day; er þér nökkut um, at vér rannsökum þik ok hús þín, have you any objection that we …?; e-m er mikit (lítil) um e-t, one likes it much, little (Guðrúnu var lítil um þat); sá, er mönnum væri meira um, whom people liked better; e-m finnst mikit um e-t, one is much pleased umwith, has a high opinion of (konungi fannst mikit um list þá ok kurteisi þá, er þar var á öllu);

10) because of, for; öfunda e-n um e-t, to envy one for a thing; verða útlagt um e-t, to be fined for a transgression; um sakleysi, without cause;

11) beyond, above; margir fengu eigi hlaupit um röst, more than one mile; hafa vetr um þrítugt, to be thirty-one; e-m um afl, um megn, beyond one’s strength, more than one can do (þetta mál er nökkut þér um megn); kasta steini um megn sér, to overstrain oneself; um of, too much, excessive (þótti mörgum þetta um of); um alla menn fram or um fram alla menn, above all men (hón unni honum um alla menn fram); e-m er e-t um hug, one has no mind for, dislikes (ef þér er nökkut um hug á kaupum við oss);

12) over, across; detta, falla um e-t, to stumble over (féll bóandinn um hann);

13) by; draugrinn hafði þokat at Þorsteini um þrjár setur, by three seats;

14) about; þeir sögðu honum, hvat um var at vera, what it was about, how matters stood; hvat sem um þat er, however that may be; eiga e-t um at vera, to be troubled about a thing (lætr sem hann eigi um ekki at vera); var fátt um með þeim, they were not on good terms;

15) ellipt., ef satt skal um tala, if the truth must be told; þannig sem atburðr hefir orðit um, as things have turned out;

16) as adv., gekk um veðrit, veered round, changed; ríða (sigla) um, to ride (sail) by; langt um, far beyond, quite; fljótit var langt um úfœrt (úreitt), quite impassable; um liðinn, passed by, of time; á þeirri viku, er um var liðin, in the past umweek;

II. with dat.

1) over, esp. poet.; sitja um borðum = sitja yfir borðum; sá es um verði glissir, he that gabbles over a meal;

2) of time, by; um dögum, um nóttum, by day, by night; um sumrum, haustum, vetrum, várum, in the summer, etc.; um vetrum ok sumrum, both winter and summer.

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umb, of, prep. (sounded umm); umb is used in the oldest vellums (the Eluc., Greg., Miracle-book, Jb.), and occurs now and then in later vellums (e. g. Orkn. 218, Fms. x. 378, xi. 63, 64), perh. from being a transcript of an old vellum; in rhymes, umb, tr umbu, Fms. viii. (in a verse of A. D. 1184); for of see ‘of’ at p. 462, col. 2: [A. S. ymbe; Germ. um; um and yfir (q. v.) are identical.]

WITH ACC.

A. Around; silki-hlað um höfuð, Ld. 188; um höfuð henni, 36; hafa um sik belti, Nj. 91, 184; um herðar sér, Ld. 56; leggja linda umb kistu, leggja lindann umb enn vanheila mann, Bs. i. 337; gyrða um sik, Sks.; beta strengi um ásenda … festa endana um steina, Nj. 115; vefjask um fótinn, Fms. iv. 335; upp um herðarnar, Eg. 580; göra garð of engi, Grág. ii. 288; lykja um akra ok eng, Eg. 529; skjóta um hann skjaldborg, Nj. 274; slá hring um e-n, 275, Eg. 88; fara í hring um skipit, Ld. 56; taka um hönd e-m, Ó. H. 176; þar var poki um útan, Ld. 188; honum vefsk tunga um höfuð, Nj. 160; vefsk tunga um tönn (see tönn) … strjúka dúki um augu, Fms. v. 326, Fs. 114 (in a verse); sjó, er fellr um heim allan, Róm. 193: Aðils jarl féll ok mart manna um hann, Eg. 297; tjalda um skip sín, Fms. xi. 63; hafa um sik ( about oneself) fjölmenni, Eg. 12, 38; selit var gört um einn ás, Ld. 280.

II. about, all over, denoting the surface; manna-ferð um héraðit, Ld. 257; fylgja þeim um einn skóg, Karl. 348; hann hafði goðorð suðr um Nesin, Ísl. ii. 207; herja um Skotland, Írland, Fms. i. 23; næfrum var þakt um ræfrit, Eg. 90; dæma för úmögum um þat þing, Grág. i. 127; flýja hingað ok þangat um eyjarnar, Fms. vii. 43; um allar sveitir, all over the country, Boll. 362; kunnigt er mér um allt Ísland, Nj. 32; of allan Noreg, Fms. x. 118; um alla Svíþjóð, Ó. H. 17; um allt ríki sitt, Eg. 278; sitja um mitt landit, about the midland, Fms. i. 26; um miðjan skóginn er smáviði, Eg. 580; sjá um alla veröld, Ó. H. 202; kominn um langan veg, come a long way off, Stj. 366, Skv. 8; of lopt ok um lög, Hkv. 1. 21; fátt kom um lengra, farther off, Fb. ii. 303; hárit féll um hana alla, Landn. 151, Fas. i. 244; hárit hékk ofan um bringu, Fas. ii. 518: mikill um herðar, large about the shoulders, broad-shouldered, Nj. 200; þykkr um bóga, þeim manni er beit á of garðinn, Grág. ii. 286; skalat hann verja um bóstað hans, 222; kveðja um þann vetvang, 106; kveðja búa heiman um þann stað, i. 130, 355: liggja um strengi, Ld. 76; or liggja um akkeri, to ride at anchor, Eg. 261, 374, Fms. ii. 5, ix. 45, x. 351.

2. of proportion; margir vóru um einn, too many against one, Ld. 156; þar vóru fjórir of einn ( four to one) mót Hákoni, Fms. x. 382; eigi minni liðs-munr, en sex mundi vera um Hákonar mann einn, i. 43; um einn hest vóru tveir menn, two men to each horse, vii. 295; sex menn sé um sáld, Grág. ii. 402: Hrafn var mjök einn um sitt, kept for himself, Fs. 29; malit hefi ek mitt of leiti? Gs. 16.

III. off, past, beyond (cp. yfir), with verbs denoting motion; fara … suðr um Stað, Eg. 12; norðr um Stað, Fms. vii. 7; sigla vestr um Bretland, Nj. 281; er þeir kómu fram um Bjarkey, Ó. H. 137; norðr um Jaðar, 182; austan um Foldina, Eg. 81; út um Eldey, Eb. 108; austr um búðina, Nj. 231; ríða um þá þrjá bæi, Grág. i. 432; hann hljóp um þá, ok í fjall upp, passed them by, Landn. 89; sigla svá um oss fram, Orkn. 402; leggja um skut þessu skipi, to pass by this ship, Fms. x. 346; leita langt um skamt fram, Nj. 207 (cp. Lat. quod petis hic est); vaða jörð upp um klaufir, Ld. 336; fram um stafn, Landn. 29; aptr um stafn, Fms. x. 266; honum var úhægt at höggva um bríkina, Sturl. iii. 219; ríða um tún, to pass by a place, Ísl. ii. 252; neðan um sáðlandit, Nj. 82; fara of engi manns, Grág. ii. 277; fara um góð héruð, Landn. 37; ganga upp um bryggjuna, Eg. 195; ganga um stræti, by the road, Korm. 228; róa út um sund, Eg. 385; kominn um langan veg, 410; þeim dropum er renna um þekjuna, Fms. i. 263.

2. over, across, along; sá er annan dregr um eldinn, Fms. i. 305; skyldi ganga um gólf at minnum öllum, to cross the flood, Eg. 253; but also to walk up and down the floor, 247; bera öl um eld, to bear the ale across the fire, Fms. vi. 442; slá um þvert skipit, Nj. 44; sigla vestr um haf, Fms. i. 22; ríða vestr um ár, austr um ár, Nj. 10, 99; suðr um sæ, Eg. 288; flytja e-n um haf, Nj. 128; austan um Kjöl, Ó. H.; sunnan um fjall, Fms. x. 3; suðr um fjall, Eg. 476; um þvera stofu, Fms. vi. 440; um þvera búð, Grág. i. 24; um þvert nesit, Fms. xi. 65; um öxl, round or across the shoulder, Ld. 276; um kné sér, across the knee, Eg. 304: the phrase, mér er e-ð um hönd, difficult to lay hand on, hard, not easy; and again, hægt um hönd, giving little trouble, easy to lay hand on; ykkr er þat hægst um hönd, easiest for you, Nj. 25; þegar eg vil er hægt um hönd, heima á Fróni at vera, Núm.; kastaði (the mail) um söðul sinn, across the saddle, Grett. 93 A.

IV. with adverbs denoting direction, upp um, út um, niðr um, ofan um, inn um, fram um, with acc. or ellipt.; sær féll út ok inn of nökkvann, Edda 36; loginn stóð inn um ræfrit, Eg. 239; hann var kominn upp um ský, Fms. i. 137; út um bringuna, Ld. 150; hann gékk út of Miðgarð, Edda 35; ganga út um dyrr, Eg. 420; fara út um glugg, Fms. ix. 3; út um glugginn, Ld. 278; láta sér um munn fara, to pass out of the mouth, Háv. 51; ferr orð er um munn líðr, Sturl. i. 207.

B. Temp. during, in the course of, cp. Engl. that spring, that summer; um messuna, Fms. x. 109; um þingit, Eg. 765; um sex ár, Stj.; um vetrinn, Eg. 168; of sumarit, Fms. x. 93; um sumarit, Nj. 4; um várit, Eg. 42; um nótt, Grág. i. 115; þat var um nótt, by night, Ld. 152; hann mátti eigi sofa um nætr, Nj. 210; sofa um nóttina, 7; vera þar um nóttina, 252; lengra enn fara megi um dag, in the course of one day, Grág. i. 89; um daginn, for the rest of the day, Ld. 42; um morna, Landn. (in a verse), Ó. H. 44; um nætr sem um daga, by night as well as day, Sks. 20 new Ed.; um allar aldir, Edda; um alla daga, all day long, Skm. 4; um alla sína daga, all his days, Hom. 114; allt um hans æfi, Eg. 268; um aldr, for ever, passim; um tíma, for a while, Mar.; um hríð, um stund, for a while, see stund, hríð; um … sakar, a while, see sök (A. III. 2); um samt, altogether, Sks. 113 B.

2. above, beyond; standa um várþing, Grág. i. 103; um hálfan mánuð, Fms. ix. 526, v. l.; um viku, above a week.

3. at a point of time, at; hann kom at höllinni um drykkju, Nj. 269; of matmál, at meal time, Grág. i. 261; um dagmál, um náttmál, einnhvern dag um þingit, Ld. 290; eitt hvert sinn um haustið, Nj. 26; þat var of vár, Fms. x. 389; um várit urðu mikil tíðendi, 2; þeir höfðu verit á sundi um daginn, Ld. 130; opt um daga, Edda 39; um daginn, the other day: um þat, when; um þat er þrír vetr eru liðnir, Ld. 146; um þat þessir eru bættir, Eg. 426; um þat lýkr, when the end is there, in the end, Fas. ii. 361; ef ek kom eigi aptr um þat, then, at that time, Fms. ii. 58; um þat er vér erum allir at velli lagðir, Eg. 426; um sinn, once, see sinni B, p. 530; um síðir, at last, see síð (II); um leið, at the same time; hér um bil, about so and so; um allt, of allt, always; Kristinn dóin má um allt sækja, at all times, N. G. L. ii. 154; nokkrum sinnum, ok hefir mér ofallt íllt þótt, Fms. v. 205 (see ávallt, p. 47, col. 2).

C. Metaph. usages, of, about, in regard to a thing, Lat. de; halda vörð á um e-t, Eg. ch. 27; annask um e-t, to attend to, Nj. 75, Glúm. 342, Kormak; gefa gaum at um e-t, to give heed to, Ó. H. 215; bera um e-t, dæma um e-t, to bear witness, judge about, Nj. 100; tala um e-t, to speak of, 40; þræta um e-t, to quarrel about; spyrja um e-t, to speer or ask about, 110; göra, yrkja um e-n, Fms. x. 378; halda njósn um e-t, Eg. 72; nefna, búa um mál, Nj. 86; um alla ráða-görð, 101; stefna e-m um e-t, Grág. i. 175, 313, Nj. 87; vera til eptir-máls um e-t, passim; frækinn um allt, in everything, 89; bera gæfu til um e-t, Eg. 76; kappsamr of allt, þeir hyggja þat lög um þat mál, Grág. i. 9; eitt ráð myndi honum um þat sýnask, Nj. 79; kunna hóf at um ágirni sína, Ó. H. 131; þat er um þat átan, er …, N. G. L. i. 19; þau tíðendi er görzk höfðu um ferðir Egils ok stórvirki, Eg. 686; stór úfarar görask of menn þessa, Fms. xi. 151; aumligt er um e-t, Hom. 159 (Ed.); seinkaðisk of svörin, 623. 16; mikit er um fyrirburði slíka, Nj. 119; þá var hvíld á um bardagann, 248; hann telzk undan um förina, Fms. xi. 69; ruðning um kviðinn, Nj.; misfangi um mark, a mistake as to a mark, Grág.; binda um heilt, to bind up a sound limb, Ld. 206: gróa um heilt, to become sound, be healed, Fms. xi. 87, Al. 120; ganga um beina, to attend; leita e-s í um mein hennar, Eg. 565; veita tilkall um arf, Eg.; leita um sættir, grið, Nj. 92; selja laun um liðveizlu, 214: in inscriptions of chapters, um so and so, = Lat. de; um viðrtal Njáls ok Skarphéðins, um misfanga ok um mark, um bæjar bruna, Nj., Grág., Fms.; göra mikit um sik, to make a great fuss, Fb. i. 545; görði mikit um sik ok var sjálfhælinn, Grett. 133 A: vera vel um sik ( of good quality) ok vinsæll, Fms. xi. 118; mey er ok vissa vænsta ok bezt um sik, 104; at hón væri í engum hlut verri um sik, Hkr. ii. 129; sviðr um sik, wise of oneself, Hm. 102; auga blátt ok snart ok vel um sik, Mag. 7; hvárr um sik, each for himself, one by one, Dipl. ii. 11; vér staðfestum þessa articulos hvern um sik ok sér hverja, 13; þykki mér þat undarligt um svá vitran mann, of a man so wise, Eg. 20; var mart vel um hann, he had many good qualities, Rb. 364; þat mátti vera um röskvan mann, Fms. vii. 227.

2. ganga um sýslur manna, to go about or upon men’s business, as an overseer. Eg. 2; ganga um beina, to attend, see beini.

3. e-m er mikit (ekki) um e-t, to like, dislike; Guðrúnu var lítið um þat … lítið ætla ek þeim um þat bræðrum, at …, Ld. 246, 264, Fms. ii. 81; var honum ekki um Norðmenn, Hkr. i. 128; Þórði kvaðsk ekki vera um manna-setur, Ld. 42; er þér nökkut um ( hast thou any objection?), at vér rannsakim þik ok hús þin, Gísl. 53; sá er mönnum væri meira um, whom people liked more, Fms, ix. 36; ef þór er mikit um ráða-hug við mik, if thou art much bent on it, xi. 4.

4. búa um eitt lyndi, to be of one mind, Jb. 396; búa um nægtir, grun, skoll, búa um heilt, see búa (A. II); búa um hvílu, to make a bed; búa um okkr, Nj. 201 (see búa B. I. 2. γ); setjask um kyrt, to settle oneself to rest, take rest, Fas. ii. 530; or sitja um kyrt.

II. because of, for, Lat. ob; öfunda e-n um e-t ( invidere a-i a-d), Nj. 168; reiðask um e-t, um hvat reiddusk goðin þá, Bs. i. 22; telja á e-n of e-t, to blame one for a thing, Nj. 52; berja e-n íllyrðum um slikt, 64; lágu margir á hálsi honum þat, Fms. xi. 336; týna aldri um óra sök, Skv. 3. 49; verða útlagr um e-t, to be fined for a transgression, Grág. i. 16; dæmdr fjörbaugs-maðr um spellvirki, 129; maðr vegr mann um konu, if a man slays a person for [ violating] his wife, 61; um sakleysi, without cause, Nj. 106, 270, Bs. i. 19.

III. beyond, above; fimm hundruð gólfa ok um ( plus) fjórum togum, Gm. 24; kistan var eigi um vættar höfga, Bs. i. 712; margir fengu eigi hlaupit um röst, Karl. 351; lítið um tuttugu menn, Sturl. i. 183; hann var ekki um tvítugan, Róm. 327; hafa vetr um þrítugt, to be one beyond thirty, i. e. thirty-one, Sturl. i. 183: freq. in mod. usage, hafa tvo um þrítugt ( thirty-two), átta um fertugt ( forty-eight), tvo um fimtugt ( fifty-two), einn um áttrætt ( eighty-one); sá dagr, sem um vikur fullar er í árinu, Rb. 128: at yðr verði þat ekki um afl, beyond your strength, more than one can do, Band. 21 new Ed.; um megn, id., Fms. viii. 62; þetta mál er nökkut þér um megn, vi. 18; kasta steini um megn sér, to overstrain oneself: um of, excessive; þótti mörgum þetta um of, Vígl. 18: um fram (q. v.), beyond; um alla menn fram, above all men, Ld. 20, Fms. v. 343; um alla hluti fram, above all things; um þat fram sem ykkr var lofat, Sks.: um hug; vera e-t um hug, to have no mind for, dislike; ef þér er nökkut um hug á kaupum við oss, Nj. 24.

IV. turned over, in exchange; skipta um, snúa um, venda um, see skipta III and snúa A. III.

V. over, across; detta, falla um e-t, to stumble over; hverr féll um annan, of heaps of slain. Eg. 24; fÉll bóandinn um hann, Nj. 96; detta um stein, þúfu, to stumble over a stone, mound; glotta um tönn, see tönn.

VI. by; draugrinn hafði þokat at Þorsteini um þrjár setur, by three seats, Fb. i. 417; hefja upp of faðm saman, by a fathom, Grág. ii. 336; minka um helming, to decrease by one half; hverr um sik, each by himself, Rétt. 114.

VII. about; eiga e-t um at vera, to be troubled about a thing; þeir sögðu honum hvat um var at vera, what it was about, Hrafn. 18; sem engi ótti væri um at vera, no danger, Fms. iv. 57; eiga ekki um at vera, iii. 156; or, eiga um ekki at vera, Gísl. 30; eiga vandræði, fjölskyldi um at vera, Fms. vi. 378, xi. 78; hann segir honum um hvat vera er, what was the matter? Gísl. 36; þann sagði þvílíkt er hann hafði um at vera, Krok.; var fátt um með þeim, they were on cold terms, Nj. 2; var þá ekki lítið um, there was no little fuss about it, Bárð. 174; mikit er um þá maðrinn býr, mart hefir hann að hugsa, a ditty.

VIII. ellipt., til marks um, Nj. 56; þykkir honum vænkask um, Fms. xi. 135; þann mála-búnað at hann verðr sekr um, Nj. 88; ef satt skal um tala, 105; mér hefir tvennt um sýnzk, 3; menn ræddu um at vánt væri skip hans, 282; hér má ek vel svara þér um, 33; hann brá dúki um, Fms. x. 382; enda er þá djöfullinn um (about, lurking) at svíkja þann mann, Hom. 159; þannig sem atburðr hefir orðit um, as things have turned out, Fms. xi. 64; ekki er við menn um at eiga, this is no dealing with men (but with trolls or devils), Nj. 97.

IX. with adverbs; í hring útan um, all round, Eg. 486; gékk um Veðrit, veered round, changed, Bs. i. 775; ríða um, to ride by, Eg. 748; sigla um, to sail by, Fms. x. 23; er konungr færi norðan ok suðr um, Eg. 53; langt um, far beyond, quite; fljótið var langt um úfært, quite impassable, Nj. 63, 144; þessi veðr eru langt um úfær, Grett. 181 new Ed.; cp. mod. það er langt um betra, by far better; kring-um, all around, see A.V.

2. um liðinn, passed by, of time; á þeirri viku er um var liðin, in the past week, Ísl. ii. 332.

WITH DAT.

A. Local, over, Lat. super; but almost entirely confined to poets, sitja um matborði (of Hkr. iii. 109) = sitja yfir matborði, Fms. viii. 51; um verði, over the table, Hm. 30; sitja of (= yfir) skörðum hlut, Ó. H. 150; sá er tvá húskarla á, ok um sjálfum sér, two house-carles besides himself, Grág. (Kb.) i. 10; um alda sonum, Fm. 16; er ek hafðak veldi of héruðum þessum, Clem. 35; hár söngr of svírum, Hornklofi; nema þér syngi um höfði, Hkv. 2; sitja um sínum ver, Vsp.; er ek sat soltin um Sigurði, Gkv. 2. 11; opin-spjallr um e-u, … þagmælskr um þjóðlygi (dat.), Ad. 1; um styrkum ættar stuðli, 12; ægis-hjálm bar ek um alda sonum, meðan ek um menjum lák, Fm. 16; gól um hánum, Vsp.; úlfr þaut um hræfi, Ó. H. (in a verse); see ‘of,’ prep., p. 462, col. 2, and yfir.

B. Of time, by; um dögum, by day, Fms. vi. 98, ix. 48; um nóttum, by night, vii. 166; um haustum, in the autumn, Eb. 216; bæði um haustum ok várum, both in autumn and spring, Sks. 235 B; um sumrum, Fms. vi. 255; um sumrum herjuðu þeir í Noreg, Eb. 3; þakt með ísum um vetrum ok sumrum, both winter and summer, Sks. 181 B; opt um vetnim, Eg. 4; þeir liggja úti hvert sumar, en um vetrum eru þeir heima, Fms. xi. 97. This use with dat. is obsolete in mod. prose.

mf (ā)n. (superl. of mádhya) middle (used like Lat. medius e.g.. madhyaimegulme, « in the midst of the troop») MBh. R. ;

SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering, Mining and extraction technology

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Greathead came to England in 1859 to complete his education. In 1864 he began a three-year pupillage with the civil engineer Peter W. Barlow, after which he was engaged as an assistant engineer on the extension of the Midland Railway from Bedford to London. In 1869 he was entrusted with the construction of the Tower Subway under the River Thames; this was carried out using a cylindrical wrought-iron shield which was forced forward by six large screws as material was excavated in front of it. This work was completed the same year. In 1870 he set himself up as a consulting engineer, and from 1873 he was Resident Engineer on the Hammersmith and Richmond extensions of the Metropolitan District Railway. He assisted in the preparation of several other railway projects including the Regent's Canal Railway in 1880, the Dagenham Dock and the Metropolitan Outer Circle Railways in 1881, a new line from London to Eastbourne and a number of Irish light railways. He worked on a bill for the City and South London Railway, which was built between 1886 and 1890; here compressed air was used to prevent the inrush of water, a method for tunnelling which was generally adopted from then on. He invented apparatus for the application of water to excavate in front of the shield as well as for injecting cement-grout behind the lining of the tunnel.

He was joint engineer with Sir Douglas Fox for the construction of the Liverpool Overhead Railway, and held the same post with W.R.Galbraith on the Waterloo and City Railway; he was also associated with Sir John Fowler and Sir Benjamin Baker in the construction of the Central London Railway. He died, aged 52, before the completion of some of these projects.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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At the age of 13, Kirtley was a pupil of George Stephenson on the Stockton \& Darlington Railway. He subsequently became a fireman and then a driver of locomotives: he drove the first locomotive to enter London on the London \& Birmingham Railway. When the Midland Railway was formed in 1844 he was appointed Locomotive Superintendent. Ever since the Act of Parliament for the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway had required that its locomotives consume their own smoke (probably as a reaction to the clouds of black smoke emitted by steamboats at Liverpool), the usual fuel for locomotives had been coke. Early multi-tubular boilers, with their small fireboxes and short tubes, were in any case unsuitable for coal because they did not allow the burning gases sufficient time to combust properly. Many engineers attempted to solve the problem with weird and complex boiler designs. Kirtley and Charles Markham, who was working under him, succeeded by inserting a deflector plate above the firedoor and an arch of firebricks in the front of the firebox: this helped to maintain the high temperatures needed and lengthened the route by which the gases travelled. The brick arch and deflector plate became the usual components of locomotive fireboxes, and expensive coke was replaced as fuel by coal.

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SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology

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Little is known for certain about William Marshall's early life, other than that he was baptized at Sinnington in the West Riding of Yorkshire. On his own account he was involved in trade in the West Indies from the age of 15 for a period of fourteen years. It is assumed that he was financially successful in this, for on his return to England in 1774 he was able to purchase Addisham Farm in Surrey. Having sacked his bailiff he determined to keep a minute book relating to all transactions on the farm, which he was now managing for himself. On these entries he made additional comments. The publication of these writings was the beginning of a substantial review of agriculture in Britain and a criticism of existing practices. From 1779 he acted as agent on a Norfolk estate, and his five years in that position resulted in The Rural Economy of Norfolk, the first of a series of county reviews that he was to write, intending the somewhat ambitious task of surveying the whole country. By 1808 Marshall had accumulated sufficient capital to be able to purchase a substantial property in the Vale of Cleveland, where he lived for the rest of his life. At the time of his death he was engaged in the erection of a building to serve as an agricultural college; the same building is now a rural-life museum.

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building, Textiles

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Titus Salt arrived in Bradford with his father, who was a wool merchant in the town, in 1822. He soon set up his own company and it was there that he experimented with the textile worsted. Alpaca wool comes from an animal of the camel family that resembles the llama, and flocks of domesticated breeds of the animal had been raised in the high Andes since the days of the Incas. The wool was introduced into Europe via Spain and, later, Germany and France. The first attempts to spin and weave the yarn in England were made in 1808, but despite experimentation over the years the material was difficult to work. It was in 1836 that Salt evolved his method of utilizing a cotton warp with part alpaca weft. The method proved a great success and Bradford gained a reputation as a manufacturing centre for alpaca wool, exporting both yarn and cloth in quantity, especially to the USA. By 1850 Salt, who owned six mills, was Bradford's biggest employer and was certainly its richest citizen. He decided to move out of the city and built a new mill works, the architects of which were Lockwood and Mawson, on the banks of the River Aire a few miles from the city. Around the works, between 1851 and 1871, he built houses, a hospital, library, church, institute and almshouses for his workers. The buildings were solid, good-standard structures of local stone and the houses were pleasantly situated, with their amenities making them seem palaces compared to the slums in which other Bradford textile workers lived at the time. The collection of buildings was the first example in Britain of a "model new town", and was, indeed still is, a remarkable prototype of its kind. Apart from being a philanthropist and social reformer, Salt was also concerned with taking advantage of the technical developments of his time. His mill works, which eventually covered ten acres of land, was of fashionably Italianate architectural style (its chimney even a copy of the campanile of the Church of Santa Maria Gloriosa in Venice), although its structure was of iron framing. The weaving shed held 1,200 looms and had capacity for 3,000 workers, who produced 30,000 yards of cloth per day. Water from the river was used to produce steam to power the matchinery used in the manufacturing processes of scouring, dyeing and finishing. For the export of goods, the nearby Leeds-Liverpool Canal linked the works to Britain's chief ports, and the Midland Railway (an extension of the LeedsBradford line which opened in 1846) was of great use for the same purpose.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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Knight was initially employed as a clerk at the Midland Railway in Derby, and in 1846 he had a job in the audit office of the Brighton Railway. From 1854 to 1869 he was Superintendent of the South Eastern Railway and then became manager of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway, a post he held until his death. During this period many improvements were put in hand, including the interlocking of signals, the block system, the incorporation of Westinghouse brakes (in 1878), Pullman cars (1877) and electric lighting.

In 1868 it was decided to erect the first set of traffic lights in London in Bridge Street, New Palace Yard, Westminster, and the authorities naturally sought the advice of an engineer familiar with railway practice. Thus John Knight was called in, and red and green lights mounted on the ends of semaphore arms were duly installed. Unfortunately, a fault in the gas supply of this set of lights caused an explosion which killed a police constable.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Metallurgy

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The son of a Birmingham chemist, Woolrich was educated at King Edward's Grammar School, Birmingham, and later became a lecturer in chemistry. As an alternative to primary cells for the supply of current for electroplating, he devised a magneto generator.

His original machine had a single compound permanent magnet; the distance between the revolving armature and the magnet could be varied to adjust the rate of deposition of metal. A more ambitious machine designed by Woolrich was constructed by Thomas Prime \& Sons in 1844 and for many years was used at their Birmingham electroplating works. Faraday, on a visit to see the machine at work, is said to have expressed delight at his discovery of electromagnetic induction being put to practical use so soon. Similar machines were in use by Elkington's, Fern and others in Birmingham and Sheffield. One of Woolrich's machines is preserved in the Birmingham Science Museum.

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m. N. of one of the midland orﾠ northwest districts of India (perhaps Berar) VarBṛS. ;